camillelouis红酒

A. 谁知道Louis Caldera的人生经历

美国加州议员路易斯·卡尔德拉（Louis Caldera）第一份工作是10岁时作了一个停车场的清洁员，虽然每天早上要三点钟起来，而且每次清洁之后都是疲惫地睡在父亲的车上回到家中，但他从中懂得了自我约束（discipline）工作的责任感（work ethic）和协调生活中相互矛盾的各种兴趣的重要性（how to balance life’s competing interest）而且在上高三的时候在一家快餐店做汉堡包，每周工作40小时，同时学习全部大学预科课程，这次经历使他明白：所有的工作都有尊严(there is dignity in all work )，只要人们能自食其力，养家糊口，就该受到尊重。经过一番汗水的努力，他最终考上了美国军事学院，之后又获得了哈佛法学和商业硕士学位
墨西哥移民的儿子, 破火山口出生 . 他和他的家庭离开得克萨斯当时他才四岁, 简要地居住在公共住房里在 Boyle 高度 邻里 在行动向郊区之前 . 1978 年他赢得了理学士学位, 然后服务在现役从1978 年到1983 年, 在1987 赢得了一个硕士学位在企业教育和a 程度。Louis Caldera 被实践的法律从1987 年到1990 年在O'Melveny & Myers 企业, 然后工作作为一位代理律师为 洛杉矶县.
Louis Caldera然后担当了加利福尼亚状态议员从1992 年到1997 年, 代表第46 个区的几乎400,000 位居民, 位于和在街市洛杉矶附近。 如同他担当银行业务主席和财政委员会的议员, 收支和征税委员会, 和预算委员会。 在完成他的第二个期限之前在大会, Louis Caldera离开开始起总经理和营运首长官员作用对于总统 在2003 年8月。

当学习在哈佛, 他遇见了他的妻子, Eva Orlebeke 破火山口; 他们一起有三女儿、Allegra 、Sophia 和Camille 。

B. 怎样确定椎弓根螺钉在椎体中心

本贴收到3朵鲜花
全脊柱椎弓根螺钉技术

一、简史

于1959 年首先将椎弓根螺钉固定应用于腰椎的融合。1969年Harrington和Tullor运用经椎弓根螺钉内固定使2例高位脊柱滑脱患者得以复位。1970年法国和瑞士的医生开始把椎弓根螺钉用于临床,CotrelandDubousset、Dick、Roy—Camille和Louis相继报道了临床成功的病例。随着上世纪80年代以后椎弓根螺钉器械经过不断的改善得到广泛的接受，应用椎弓根螺钉结合植骨融合逐渐成为相关疾病的治疗金标准。Whitecloud[2]认为，椎弓根是脊椎上最为坚强的部分，是对脊柱进行操作和制动的有效作用点。通过椎弓根器械的正确安放，就可以免除脊柱的钩-杆系统中的固定钩或luque系统中的椎板下钢丝对腰椎管造成的医源性的狭窄。而且与前代固定系统相比，椎弓根器械可以在获得有效固定的同时，维持脊柱的正常解剖，最大限度地保留脊柱的运动节段。在同一器械的不同节段，可以分别进行牵开、压缩、旋转、恢复前凸以及椎体的向前和向后平移。Vanden- berghe[3] 等在尸体研究中发现，与先前的其它器械如 harrington、hartshill 框架及luque 技术相比，椎弓根器械的力学优点更胜一筹。在控制各个方向的异常活动包括旋转活动方面作用明显，并且由于椎弓根器械对于三柱均有良好的稳定作用和其自身的通用性，在保持和重建腰椎生理前凸方面的作用也非常可靠。
二、基础研究

1、解剖学研究
a、颈、胸、腰段的椎弓根形态各异，腰段椎弓根髓腔宽均小于相应的髓腔高,故应以髓腔宽确定螺钉直径,L1、L2髓腔宽不足其高的1/2。Ebraheim.测量认为椎弓根内侧至硬膜囊间距离，椎弓根至邻近上下神经根的距离分别为1.5、5.3、1.5mm，神经根上下径3.8-4.6mm，神经根走行33.7-39.20，认为偏内侧偏尾侧操作应避免[4]。Saillent
报道椎弓根轴线在L1~L3位于横突中线上方1.4~3.9mm，在L4~L5 位于横突中线附近。
b、胸段椎弓根除T1有少部分(占23.3%)髓腔宽大于其髓腔高外,其余均小于其髓腔高,T4～6髓腔宽度仅为3.0mm左右,髓腔断面T1多为圆形或横椭圆形,T11、T12多为纵椭圆形,其余近似“耳形”或“鞋底形”,多为上宽下窄,中间凹陷处被肋颈所占且肋颈侧椎弓根骨皮质极薄,对螺钉几乎无阻力,易穿入肋椎关节内或损伤邻近结构,应引起临床足够的重视[5]。上胸椎椎弓根短,窄而薄,椎弓根的上缘与椎体上面终板相平行,椎弓根的上下缘位于椎体的上2/3处。椎弓根后部稍高,前部稍低。侯树勋等[10]对椎弓根轴线与关节突和横突的关系作了定量测量, 发现 T9~T12 椎弓根轴线位于关节突中点和外缘所作垂直线与横突中点和上缘所作水平线构成的四边形的内上方,从 L1以下逐渐移到外下方,而L5 到关节突外缘之外 5mm 处。胸椎周围重要组织较多，当螺钉沿椎弓根轴线向前穿透椎前皮质外2～10mm时,胸椎右侧可能伤及的组织有肋间上血管(T4～5)、食道(T4～9)、奇静脉(T5～8)、上腔静脉(T11～12)、胸导管(T4～12);胸椎左侧可能伤及的组织包括食道(T4～9)、主动脉(T5～12)。当偏向椎弓根外侧的螺钉向前穿透椎前皮质时,胸椎左侧可能伤及肺组织、节段血管、交感神经链(T4～12)和主动脉(T5～10);右侧可能伤到肺组织、节段血管、交感神经链和奇静脉(T5～11)[11]。当螺钉偏于椎弓根内侧时,可能伤及脊髓和神经组织。胸膜反折位于椎弓根外下方，故螺钉偏外下可能损及胸膜和节段血管。事实上，硬膜囊两侧平均各有2.6mm的缓冲区,正是有了这一缓冲区,使大部分穿透椎弓根内侧皮质的螺钉未对神经组织造成伤害。由于肋骨头对胸膜的保护作用，当螺钉穿透或完全在椎弓根外侧皮质6mm以内时,胸膜可以免受螺钉损伤。
c、C6、C7髓腔宽度大于其高度,枢椎椎弓根上部宽明显大于其中部及下部,但其骨皮质厚度也为上部大于中下部,故其髓腔断面多呈纵椭圆或圆形,颈胸椎椎弓根外缘皮质骨极薄,对螺钉几乎无阻力。Ugur等[6]研究了颈椎椎弓根内径平均值,与硬脊膜囊、上下神经根和椎动脉等毗邻重要结构的距离及颈椎椎弓根与椎体的夹角角度等,其椎弓根直径波动于6.0～7.5mm,椎弓根与椎体水平面成角波动于37～45°,矢状面成角波动于1～8.6°,偏内上侧皮质骨较厚,外下方皮质骨较薄,但存在个体差异。Panjabi等[7-9]进行了颈椎椎弓根内径的解剖学测量,发现C3和C4内径最小,平均约3mm,C7椎弓根内径最大,平均约5mm,C5和C6居中,平均约3.5～4.5mm,并提出决定椎弓根钉的稳定性及抗拔出力量主要是由其内径来决定,而不由外径大小决定。颈椎弓根在水平面上位于椎管和横突孔、椎体后缘与关节突之间。C2椎弓根是从侧后方斜指向内上方，位于横突孔的后内侧，内侧由上关节面覆盖。C3-C6的椎弓根走行是从后外侧指向前内侧，与上下关节突间侧块的前内侧面相连。椎动脉从C6到C2的上升过程中，逐渐向前向内侧走行，在C2横突孔内，从下内方向上外侧方走行，而后上行穿过寰椎横突孔后转向后内方绕侧块之后,经寰椎后弓上面的椎动脉沟向中央走行,穿过寰枕后膜进入颅内形成基底动脉。椎动脉沟前方为上关节凹，与枕骨的枕髁相关节。C7侧块薄，椎弓根宽大，仅5%有椎动脉孔，适合椎弓根螺钉固定。
d、骶1椎体前上缘向前凸出，为岬部，骶骨前后各四对骶前孔与骶后孔，骶骨间无椎间盘。腹主动脉位于椎体左前方，于腰4平面分出左右髂总，分叉后方分出骶中动脉，再于骶1处分出髂内外动脉。下腔静脉位于其右侧，分叉于腰4/5间，同名血管与动脉伴行。骶静脉丛位于骶前筋膜与骶骨间，一旦损伤较难止血。骶神经前支较重要，应避免损伤。了解以上解剖对置钉有着重要的作用。

2、 影像学研究
标准胸腰段正位X线片上椎弓根椭圆形投影的中心点作一水平线和一垂直线,过上一椎同侧下关节突下极作一水平线和过该关节突外侧缘作一垂直线。比较两水平线及两垂直线的距离,可以准确的选定椎弓根螺钉的入钉点—X线片上椎弓根椭圆形投影的中心点外移0.5～1.0mm[12]。侧位X线片，可看出椎弓根的高度，椎弓根中轴线是否与终板平行，椎弓根头向或尾向角度，以及是否存在畸形或缺如。需注意有时两侧椎弓根的头尾向角度并不一致。
左前斜位片上可以清楚地显示右侧椎弓根螺钉顶端和椎体前外侧骨皮质,右前斜位片可以显示左侧椎弓根螺钉及椎体前外侧骨皮质。此部分骨皮质恰是椎弓根螺钉穿出的部位。进钉角度不同,出针点的位置也不相同,当0～5°时,出钉点在椎体侧方;5～10°时在椎体前外侧方;10～20°时出针点在椎体前方。这就为研究如何判断进钉深度提供了可靠的形态学基础。斜位片上椎体前方显影部位是椎弓根螺钉穿出骨皮质的部位,当进钉角度在5～10°时,斜位片可准确地判断螺钉进钉深度[13]。
研究发现除T10、11少部分外,T12～L5全部及大部分T10、11的棘突上缘根部都位于椎弓根上、下平面范围内,这就使棘突定位法具备了最基本的条件。L1～4棘突上缘根部极接近椎弓根中轴线,大多在椎弓根中轴线上下2mm左右范围内。L5则明显位于中轴线下方5mm左右的范围内 [14]。利用侧位X线片上椎弓根影像与棘突上缘之间的距离来确定进针平面,利用正位片上椎弓根卵圆形投影与棘突侧缘的距离来选择进针位置。
CT对椎弓根的E角有直观的判断，同时可了解其横径及椎弓根形态，以及椎弓根中轴线与关节突的关系，这些对准确的置钉有着重要的作用，如支持三维重建，则可更直观的判断进钉点、进钉深度和钉的直径。只有通过影像学资料，才能很好的制定置钉方案，从而准确的通过中轴线及达到合适的深度。
通常确定矢状面倾角(头向尾向角)需根据侧位X片，术中伏卧位会有一定程度改变。其实还是有规律可循的，脊柱有颈、胸、腰椎生理弯曲，一般来说颈5；胸6、7；腰3为水平椎，其进钉可垂直，水平椎上下椎体，矢状面倾角呈相反趋势，越远角度越大，至颈胸、胸腰交界处再度减小。
三、临床应用
Rol-camille[15]进钉点为关节突关节面垂直延长线与横突水平中位线交点,进钉方向为笔直向前;Magerl[16]或Weistein等[17]取上关节突外缘垂直延长线与横突水平中位线交点为进钉点，在胸椎也可取关节突关节面垂直延长线与横突水平中位线交点偏外2-3mm进钉，向前向内倾斜100-200；第三类是介于两者之间的louis[18]和Ebraheim等[19]方法,进钉点的垂直线在下胸椎取关节突关节面外1/3,在腰椎取关节间隙最外侧,水平线为关节突关节面下缘上方1mm,二者交点为进钉点,亦笔直向前置入螺钉。还有人主张在胸腰段以00进钉,每向下一节应向前向内倾斜增加50。实践中发现不同个体椎弓根轴线并不同，故有人提出个体化置钉，术前仔细读片，确定进钉点及角度，对于椎弓根较细小的情况尤其重要。

1、 腰椎椎弓根技术

在腰椎人字嵴出现率为94.5%,人字嵴恒定存在,变异少。操作时将人字嵴顶点稍咬平后,可用手锥缓缓进入椎弓根,进钉全过程手感均保持在松质骨内行进,既无明显落空感又无很大阻力,进锥时根据术前胸腰椎侧位X线片保持SSA角0°位,并保持TSA角为5～15°[20]。利用棘突上缘根部平椎弓根平面，也可作为定位标志。参照CT可确定螺钉直径和长度，通常取骨性通道的80%较安全。

2、 胸椎椎弓根技术
胸椎椎弓根螺钉进钉点水平线为T1、T12为横突根部中点，T2、T11为横突根部中上1/3，其余为横突根部上缘。乔栓杰[21]将胸椎分为3组，第1组T1-2,第2组T3-8,第3组T9-12。第1组进钉点定为下关节突下缘外的垂直线与横突嵴相交处；第2组定为下关节突下缘中间垂直线与横突嵴水平线交点处，其下关节突下缘至横突嵴之间即为进钉点。第三组为下关节突外1/3与横突上1/3交点。至于与矢壮面的夹角，多数学者认为需结合CT测量来判断。Louis[22]认为不同水平应有不同进针点,T3 以上为上位胸椎下关节突下3mm 和关节突外缘内3mm; T4～ T10位于关节突外缘更内侧一些。椎弓根螺钉进针点在内外侧面上位置比上下方向上的位置更重要，因为除了T1 、T2 ,胸椎椎弓根宽度明显比高度小得多。上段胸椎内倾角为150-200，中下段胸椎螺钉直向前。T11、12节段椎弓根E角较特殊,多数略为负值, Louis进钉点进钉,椎弓根穿破量较少,以70-80方向进钉最佳。椎弓根螺钉后倾角除根据侧位片外，还可依照与椎板关系，T1-T10椎弓根轴线与椎板垂直，T11、T12为800-850 。椎弓根螺钉直径可参考以下标准[23]选择:T4至T7为3.5～4.0mm;T3、T8、T9为4.0～4.5mm,其余均为5.0mm以上。长度T1至T10应为24.0～33.0mm,且随椎骨序数增加而逐渐增加1.0mm,T11、T12则较T10短,小于32 0mm,通过CT及正侧位片可判断。对于椎弓根形态不规则或较细，置钉有困难，可切除部分椎板，用探针定位椎弓根的上壁、内壁，便可准确置钉。偏外侧突破椎弓根外侧皮质少许多无大碍，但影响固定强度。注意存在无髓腔或部分硬质骨占据髓腔的情况，开道较困难，置钉需谨慎。对于侧弯时置钉，凹侧硬膜紧贴椎弓根，置于凸侧较安全。

对于成人，椎弓根螺钉直径小于5mm，将有断钉隐患。中胸椎很多情况下，无法置入大于5mm直径螺钉（椎弓根崩裂），另外不同椎弓根与矢壮面的夹角变化大，易导致装配困难。有些学者采用椎弓根外侧置入，很好的解决了这些问题。进钉点选横突的尖端，横突中线水平，先转一小洞，锥子的指向与该椎小关节外侧缘相交。与矢壮面的夹角为25—40度，自T12向上度数逐渐增加。置入的螺钉将经过横突、部分的肋横突及肋椎关节、椎体的侧壁，由于进钉途径位于小关节外侧，不可能进入椎管，较安全，另外倾角增加使螺钉较长、较粗，固定强度增加，植入角度范围大，螺钉可位于一条线上，装配较方便。

3、 颈椎椎弓根技术

a、下颈椎
目前进针方法主要有:Abumi法、解剖标志定位法、计算机辅助成像定位法等。Abumi等最早报道了应用磨钻打磨穿椎板外侧块骨皮质后,X线透视下将小探针经椎弓根髓腔插入椎体中,扩髓后,结合术前CT扫描可见经椎板外侧块骨皮质、椎弓根到椎体前沿的长度及椎弓根髓腔内径大小,再置入合适的椎弓根钉。王东来等[24]
进钉点定位是以下关节中点划纵线，两关节间隙中点划横线，C3～C6 位于关节突背面外上象限的中点,C7
位于关节突中垂线接近上关节面的下缘。而吴战勇等[25]认为于关节突背面画三条垂线,将上关节突分成四等分,三条线分别为外 1/3 线、中线、内 1/3 线. 椎弓根进钉点在c3~c5 位于外 1/3 垂线上,距上关节面下缘3mm;c6~c7在中垂线上,距上关节面下缘2mm。进钉方向与椎体矢状线夹角c3~c5 为 400, c6~c7 为350；与椎体水平线夹角 c5 为水平位,其上节段为从后下向前上倾斜,c6、c7为从后上向前下倾斜约 50。去除椎板后用神经剥离器探测椎弓根的上下壁及内壁,应用2.5mm 磨钻钻孔或小刮匙开道,丝锥扩孔,插入细克氏针拍颈椎侧位、斜位片观察进钉点及方向准确无误后方可拧入椎弓根螺钉。闫德强等发现上下关节突间侧凹、关节突后平面为下颈椎定位标志。垂直于关节突后平面的椎弓后上缘高度水平线与上下关节突间侧凹外缘的矢状线的交点为进钉点。从解剖可知，操作时应靠下靠内，以减少突破的可能。根据CT片确定螺钉长度,一般达椎体80%即可。

b、上颈椎
对于寰椎马向阳等[26]发现其椎弓根宽度为7.78mm，以枢椎下关节突中心点的纵垂线与垂线经过处的寰椎后弓上缘下方3.0mm的水平线的交点作为螺钉的进针点，内斜100，上仰50钻孔便可，无须显露寰枢间的血管神经丛，也避开了椎动脉。进行寰椎椎弓根螺钉固定是可行的,其决定因素是椎动脉沟处的寰椎后弓高度，小于4mm则改为侧块螺钉。而对于枢椎Xu等[27]通过解剖研究,将进钉点确定为:枢椎椎板上缘水平线下5mm与椎管内侧缘外7mm的交点处。Howington等[28]也通过解剖研究,确定了另一种进钉点定位方法:枢椎棘突正中垂线外侧26mm与枢椎下关节突的最下缘上方9mm的交点处。若术中枢椎关节突外侧的椎动脉得以显露,则该进钉点与椎动脉内缘的垂直距离为1.38mm。李志军等[29]则将进钉点确定为枢椎横突下缘水平线与关节突的中外1/4垂线的交点处。Howington等[28]发现显露枢椎椎弓根内缘和上缘,按他们确定的新进钉点,
螺钉内斜35.2°、上倾38.8°置钉,20枚螺钉均准确置入,各个方向均没有突破椎弓根。直径一般选用3.5mm的皮质骨螺钉[27,28,30,31],枢椎椎弓根的高度或宽度<5mm,则不宜行螺钉固定。

4、 骶骨钉技术

在骶椎,通常进钉点为S1关节突外缘纵线与下缘水平切线交点，指向中线或平行于骶髂关节。椎弓根螺钉可以从标准的往前内侧方指向骶骨体或岬部,或者是向前外方进入骶骨翼。Edwards发现骶骨螺钉在S1处的植入角度在前内侧25°,或者在骶骨翼外侧成角35°具有最大的拔出力量。Zindrik发现在S2椎弓根螺钉固定的力量最弱,如果要提高螺钉的拔出力量应从偏外侧45°角拧入[32]。Mirkovic使用椎弓根螺钉通过骶骨前后两面骨皮质以增强固定时,判定S1螺钉放置时易损伤腰骶神经干,髂内静脉和骶髂关节,S1螺钉放置有2个安全区域,其中前内侧最为安全[33]。
四、展望
经皮椎弓根置入等微创技术正逐步开展，给椎弓根技术带来了新思路。C臂型CT三维计算机定位系统、虚拟X线导航等技术，为椎弓根准确置钉提供了保障，但费用高,操作复杂，基层医院难于推广应用。如何置钉时更准确的定位，如何避免突破椎弓根，成为椎弓根技术的关键，目前采用柔性钻技术将有望解决此问题，而无需昂贵的定位系统。

C. 求关于法国的英文演讲稿

has long inspired opinionated outbursts, from delusional to denouncing, but on one matter travelers remain in agreement: it’s among the most stimulating cities in the world. Paris assaults all the senses, demanding to be seen, heard, touched, tasted and smelt. From luminescent landmarks to fresh poodle droppings on the pavement, the city is everything it should be - the very essence of all French things. If you come here expecting all you’ve heard to be true, you won’t leave disappointed.

Paris is at its best ring the temperate spring months (March to May), with autumn coming in a close second. In winter, there are all sorts of cultural events to tempt the visitor, but school holidays can clog the streets with the little folk. August is usually hot and sticky, and it’s also when many Parisians take their yearly vacations, so businesses are likely to be closed.

Musée Louvre

Louvre is probably one of the most world-renowned sightseeing places in Paris. This enormous building, constructed around 1200 as a fortress and rebuilt in the mid-16th century for use as a royal palace, began its career as a public museum in 1793. As part of Mitterand’s grands projets in the 1980s, the Louvre was revamped with the addition of a 21m (67ft) glass pyramid entrance. Initially deemed a failure, the new design has since won over those who regard consistency as inexcusably boring. Vast scrums of people puff and pant through the rooms full of paintings, sculptures and antiquities, including the Mona Lisa, Venus de Milo and Winged Victory (which looks like it’s been dropped and put back together). If the clamor becomes unbearable, your best bet is to pick a period or section of the Louvre and pretend that the rest is somewhere across town.

Eiffel Tower

This towering edifice was built for the World Fair of 1889, held to commemorate the centennial of the French Revolution. Named after its designer, Gustave Eiffel, it stands 320m (1050ft) high and held the record as the world’s tallest structure until 1930. Initially opposed by the city’s artistic and literary elite - who were only affirming their right to disagree with everything - the tower was almost torn down in 1909. Salvation came when it proved an ideal platform for the antennas needed for the new science of radio telegraphy. When you’re done peering upwards through the girders, you can visit any of the three public levels, which can be accessed by lift or stairs. Just south-east of the tower is a grassy expanse that was once the site of the world’s first balloon flights and is now used by teens as a skateboarding arena or by activists bad-mouthing Chirac.

Avenue des Champs-élysées

A popular promenade for the ostentatious aristos of old, the Avenue des Champs-élysées has long symbolised the style and joie de vivre of Paris. Encroaching fast-food joints, car showrooms and cinemas have somewhat lled the sheen, but the 2km (1mi) long, 70m (235ft) wide stretch is still an ideal place for evening walks and relishing the food at overpriced restaurants.

Centre Georges Pompidou

The Centre Georges Pompidou, displaying and promoting modern and contemporary art, is far and away the most visited sight in Paris. Built between 1972 and 1977, the hi-tech though daffy design has recently begun to age, prompting face-lifts and closures of many parts of the centre. Woven into this mêlée of renovation are several good (though pricey) galleries plus a free, three-tiered library with over 2000 periodicals, including English-language newspapers and magazines from around the world. A square just to the west attracts street musicians, Marcel Marceau impersonators and lots of unsavoury types selling drugs or picking pockets.

Notre Dame

The city’s cathedral ranks as one of the greatest achievements of Gothic architecture. Notre Dame was begun in 1163 and completed around 1345; the massive interior can accommodate over 6000 worshippers. Although Notre Dame is regarded as a sublime architectural achievement, there are all sorts of minor anomalies as the French love nothing better than to mess with things. These include a trio of main entrances that are each shaped differently, and which are accompanied by statues that were once coloured to make them more effective as Bible lessons for the hoi polloi. The interior is dominated by spectacular and enormous rose windows, and a 7800-pipe organ that was recently restored but has not been working properly since. From the base of the north tower, visitors with ramrod straight spines can climb to the top of the west fa?ade and decide how much aesthetic pleasure they derive from looking out at the cathedral’s many gargoyles - alternatively they can just enjoy the view of a decent swathe of Paris. Under the square in front of the cathedral, an archaeological crypt displays in situ the remains of structures from the Gallo-Roman and later periods.

Sainte Chapelle

Lying inside the Palais de Justice (law courts), Sainte Chapelle was consecrated in 1248 and built to house what was reputedly Jesus’ crown of thorns and other relics purchased by King Louis IX earlier in the 13th century. The gem-like chapel, illuminated by a veritable curtain of 13th-century stained glass (the oldest and finest in Paris), is best viewed from the law courts’ main entrance - a magnificently gilded, 18th-century gate. Once past the airport-like security, you can wander around the long hallways of the Palais de Justice and, if you can find a court in session, observe the proceedings. Civil cases are heard in the morning, while criminal trials - usually reserved for larceny or that French speciality crimes passionnel - begin after lunch.

Musée d’Orsay

Spectacularly housed in a former railway station built in 1900, the Musée d’Orsay was reinaugurated in its present form in 1986. Inside is a trove of artistic treasures proced between 1848 and 1914, including highly regarded Impressionist and Post-impressionist works. Most of their paintings and sculptures are found on the ground floor and the skylight-lit upper level, while the middle level has some magnificent rooms showcasing the Art-Nouveau movement. Nearby, the Musée Rodin displays the lively bronze and marble sculptures by Camille Claudel and Auguste Rodin, including casts of some of Rodin’s most celebrated works. There’s a shady sculpture garden out the back, one of Paris’ treasured islands of calm.

Cimetière Père Lachaise

[R-p5]Established in 1805, this necropolis attracts more visitors than any similar structure in the world. Within the manicured, evergreen enclosure are the tombs of over one million people including such luminaries as the composer Chopin; the writers Molière, Apollinaire, Oscar Wilde, Balzac, Marcel Proust and Gertrude Stein; the artists David, Delacroix, Pissarro, Seurat and Modigliani; the actors Sarah Bernhardt, Simone Signoret and Yves Montand; the singer édith Piaf; and the dancer Isadora Duncan. The most visited tomb, however, is that of The Doors lead singer, Jim Morrison, who died in Paris in 1971. One hundred years earlier, the cemetery was the site of a fierce battle between Communard insurgents and government troops. The rebels were eventually rounded up against a wall and shot, and were buried where they fell in a mass grave.

Place des Vosges

The Marais district spent a long time as a swamp and then as agricultural land, until in 1605 King Henry IV decided to transform it into a residential area for Parisian aristocrats. He did this by building Place des Vosges and arraying 36 symmetrical houses around its square perimeter. The houses, each with arcades on the ground floor, large dormer windows, and the requisite creepers on the walls, were initially built of brick but were subsequently constructed using timber with a plaster covering, which was then painted to look like brick. Duels, fought with strictly observed formality, were once staged in the elegant park in the middle. From 1832-48 Victor Hugo lived at a house at No 6, which has now been turned into a municipal museum. Today, the arcades around the place are occupied by expensive galleries and shops, and cafés filled with people drinking little cups of coffee and air-kissing immaculate passersby.

Bois de Boulogne

The modestly sized Bois de Boulogne, on the western edge of the city, is endowed with forested areas, meandering paths, belle époque cafes and little wells of naughtiness. Each night, pockets of the Bois de Boulogne are taken over by prostitutes and lurkers with predacious sexual tastes. In recent years, the police have cracked down on the area’s sex trade, but locals still advise against walking through the area alone at night.

Outer ?le de France

The relatively small region surrounding Paris - known as the ?le de France (Island of France) - was where the kingdom of France began its 12th-century expansion. Today, it’s a popular day-trip destination for Parisians and Paris-based visitors. Among the region’s many attractions are woodlands ideal for hiking, skyscrapered districts endowed with sleekly functional architecture, the much-maligned EuroDisney, elegant historical towns and Versailles, the country’s former political capital and seat of the royal court. The latter is the site of the Chateau de Versailles, the grandest and most famous palace in France. Built in the mid-1600s ring the reign of Louis XIV, the chateau is a keen reminder of just how much one massive ego and a nation’s wealth could buy in days of old (eat your heart out, Bill Gates). Apart from grand halls, bedchambers, gardens, ponds and fountains too elaborate to discuss, there’s also a 75m (250ft) Hall of Mirrors, where nobles dressed like ninnies could watch each other dancing.

Canal Saint Martin

The little-touristed Saint Martin canal, running through the north-eastern districts of the Right Bank, is one of Paris’ hidden delights. The 5km (3mi) waterway, parts of which are higher than the surrounding land, was built in 1806 to link the Seine with the much longer Canal de l’Ourcq. Its shaded towpaths - specked with sunlight filtering through the plane trees - are a wonderful place for a romantic stroll or bike ride past locks, metal bridges and unassuming but well turned-out Parisian neighbourhoods.

Paris has two airports, Aéroport d’Orly, south of central Paris, and Aéroport Charles de Gaulle, in the north, is a major international hub, so you shouldn’t have any trouble finding a flight, regardless of where you’re flying. Paris is also famous for its sophisticated underground system, known as Metro. No matter where you are, chances are that there’s a metro station within a few blocks.

Europe is famous for its fascinating cultural background and the same is true to Paris. Why shall you wait? It’s well worth visiting it.

D. 推荐几本英语原版书吧

参考一下吧：
我有这本书，但是太大了。十多兆吧。发送太慢了，所以……

你自己到新浪读书去下载吧。

战争与和平 War And Peace
作者：列夫·托尔斯泰 by Leo Tolstoy
悲惨世界 Les Miserables
作者：维克多·雨果 by Victor Hugo
双城记 A Tale of Two Cities
作者：查尔斯·狄更斯 by Charles Dickens
简·爱 Jane Eyre
作者：夏洛特·勃朗特 by Charlotte Bronte
呼啸山庄 Wuthering Heights
作者：艾米略·勃朗特 by Emily Bronte
傲慢与偏见 Pride And prejudice
作者：简·奥斯汀 by Jane Austen
德伯家的苔丝
Tess of the D'Urbervilles
作者：托马斯·哈代 by Thomas Hardy
基督山伯爵 The Count of Monte Cristo
作者：大仲马 by Alexandre Dumas Pere
茶花女 La Dame aux camélias (Camille)
作者：小仲马 by Alexandre Dumas fils
爱丽丝漫游奇境记 Alice's Adventures In Wonderland
作者：刘易斯·卡洛尔 by Lewis Carroll
鲁宾逊飘流记 Robison Crusoe
作者：丹尼尔·笛福 by Daniel Defoe
汤姆·索亚历险记 The Adventures of Tom Sawyer
作者：马克·吐温 by Mark Twain
哈克贝里·芬历险记 The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn
作者：马克·吐温 by Mark Twain
嘉莉妹妹 Sister Carrie
作者：西奥多·德莱塞 by Theodore Dreiser
娜娜 Nana
作者：左拉 by Emile Zola
马丁·伊登 Martin Eden
作者：杰克·伦敦 by Jack London
红字 The Scarlet Letter
作者：霍桑 by Nathaniel Hawthorne
查太莱夫人的情人 Lady Chatterley's Lover
作者：D·H·劳伦斯 by D·H·Lawrence
宝岛 Treasure Island
作者：罗伯特·路易斯·史蒂文森 by Robert Louis Stevenson
八十天环游地球 Around the World In 80 Days
作者：儒勒·凡尔纳 by Jules Verne
尤利西斯 Ulysses
作者：乔伊斯 by James Joyce